1. Industrial, research and veterinary uses of ionising radiation 1.1 Uses of sealed radioactive sources Sealed radioactive sources are defined as sources whose structure or packaging, in normal use, prevents any dispersion of radioactive substances into the surrounding environment. Their main uses are presented below. 1.1.1 Verification of physical parameters The operating principle of these physical parameter verification devices is the attenuation of the signal emitted: the difference between the emitted signal and the received signal can be used to assess the desired information. The most commonly used radionuclides are carbon-14, cobalt-60, krypton-85, caesium-137, promethium-147 and americium-241. The source activities range from a few kilobecquerels (kBq) to a few gigabecquerels (GBq). The sources are used for the purpose of: ∙ Atmospheric dust measurement: the air is permanently filtered through a tape placed between the source and detector and running at a controlled speed. The intensity of radiation received by the detector depends on the amount of dust on the filter, which enables this amount to be determined. The most frequently used sources are carbon-14 (with an activity of 3.5 megabecquerels – MBq) or promethium-147 (with an activity of 9 MBq). These measurements are used for air quality monitoring by verifying the dust content of discharges from plants. ∙ Paper weight measurement: a beam of beta radiation passes through the paper and hits a detector situated opposite. The signal attenuation on this detector indicates the density of the paper, and therefore its weight per unit area. The sources used are generally krypton-85 or promethium-147, with activities of 3 GBq at the most. ∙ Liquid level measurement: a gamma radiation beam passes through the container holding the liquid. It hits a detector situated opposite. The signal attenuation measured on this detector indicates the filling level of the container and automatically triggers certain operations (stop/continue filling, alarm, etc.). The radionuclides used depend on the characteristics of the container and the content. The sources generally used are americium-241 (with an activity of 1.7 GBq) or caesium-137 – barium-137m (with an activity of 37 MBq), as the case may be. ∙ Density measurement and weighing: the principle is the same as for the above two measurements. The sources used are generally americium-241 (with an activity of 2 GBq), caesium-137 – barium-137m (with an activity of 100 MBq) or cobalt-60 (with an activity of 30 GBq). ∙ Soil density and humidity measurement (gammadensimetry), particularly in agriculture and public works. These devices function with a source of caesium-137 and a pair of americiumberyllium sources. The industrial and research sectors have been using sources of ionising radiation in a wide range of applications and locations for many years now. The purpose of the radiation protection regulations is to ensure that workers, the public and the environment are properly protected. This protection involves more specifically ensuring proper management of the sources, which are often portable and used on worksites, and monitoring the conditions of possession, use and disposal, from fabrication through to end of life. It also involves monitoring the main stakeholders, that is to say the source manufacturers and suppliers, and enhancing their accountability. The radiation sources used are either radionuclides – essentially artificial – in sealed or unsealed sources, or electrical devices generating ionising radiation. The applications presented in this chapter concern the manufacture and distribution of all sources, the industrial, research and veterinary uses (medical activities are presented in chapter 7) and activities not regulated under the Basic Nuclear Installations (BNIs) System (these are presented in chapters 10, 11 and 12). The ongoing updating of the regulatory framework for nuclear activities established by the Public Health Code is leading to a tightening of the principle of justification, consideration of natural radionuclides, and the implementation of a more graded approach in the administrative systems and measures to protect sources against malicious acts. As of January 2019, the regulation of industrial, research and veterinary activities has been substantially modified by the extension of the notification system to certain nuclear activities that use radioactive sources. The continuation of the work to tailor the administrative systems to the radiation exposure risks involved in the various nuclear activities crossed a milestone in 2021 with the entry into force on 1 July of the new simplified authorisation system called “registration”. In 2022, to complete the comprehensive overhaul of the system regulating these nuclear activities, ASN (the French Nuclear Safety Authority) started work revising resolutions setting the content of the licence application to be submitted by the licensees. 238 ASN Report on the state of nuclear safety and radiation protection in France in 2022 • 08 • Sources of ionising radiation and their industrial, veterinary and research applications
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