LES CAHIERS DE L’ASN #06 AUTORITÉ DE SÛRETÉ NUCLÉAIRE #06 • MAY 2024 RADIOACTIVE WASTE How to implement lasting solutions to protect human health and the environment? Radioactive waste under surveillance What waste are we talking about? The challenges for tomorrow Informing the public HA VTC MA-VL FMA-VC FA-VL TFA
Contents RADIOACTIVE WASTE UNDER SURVEILLANCE • A strict legal framework 4 • Radioactive waste: who acts, who oversees? 6 WHAT WASTE ARE WE TALKING ABOUT? • The different types of radioactive waste 8 • Radioactive waste in France: key figures 10 • The steps in radioactive waste management 12 • Where is the radioactive waste in France? 14 • Close-up on some of the facilities devoted to processing, conditioning or storage of radioactive waste 18 THE CHALLENGES FOR TOMORROW • The case of HLW-ILW/LL radioactive waste 22 • Potential solutions for the future 24 • Radioactive waste management around the world 25 INFORMING THE PUBLIC • The French population and radioactive waste 28 • Your questions, our answers 30 GLOSSARY 34
Nuclear power is a major source of energy in a large number of countries. In France, it accounts for more than 70% of all the electricity produced. Although nuclear production of electricity emits very little in terms of greenhouse gases, it does have other environmental implications, such as radioactive waste. Some waste from the reprocessing of spent fuels from the nuclear power plants remains a danger for hundreds of thousands of years. The French population is well aware of this issue and their primary concern is radioactive waste management, ahead of the risk of an accident. A vast majority of them wishes to see waste management solutions identified and implemented, without placing this burden on future generations. Although there is still no operational management solution for certain waste, France does have a consistent overall framework for the management of all the waste, regardless of producer or type, providing a long-term guarantee of its safe management, with ring-fencing of the necessary financing. It is the role of ASN to oversee the correct management of radioactive waste, in order to protect human health and the environment. Radioactive waste • 3
A strict legal framework Radioactive waste is subject to strict regulations. The 28 June 2006 Act sets the broad principles governing its management and the National Radioactive Materials and Waste Management Plan (PNGMDR*) is the primary tool for implementing these principles. The main principles underpinning the sustainable management of radioactive materials and waste in France are set out in the 28 June 2006 Act: ∙ Protection of human health, security and the environment in the sustainable management of radioactive materials and waste of all types, must be guaranteed. ∙ A National Radioactive Materials and Waste Management Plan (PNGMDR) is created to ensure the long-term implementation of the principles of the Act (see opposite). ∙ The availability of funds devoted to the long-term management of radioactive waste must be guaranteed. In this respect, the nuclear licensees must make a prudent assessment of the cost of decommissioning their installations and the cost of managing their radioactive waste. ∙ The ban on the disposal in France of foreign radioactive waste is reaffirmed and the conditions for the reprocessing* in France of spent fuels* or radioactive waste from other countries, along with the publicity related to these operations, are defined precisely. ∙ Reversible disposal (for a certain period of time, the possibility of removing the waste) in a deep geological formation is the reference solution for the management of high-level and intermediate-level long-lived radioactive waste (HLW-ILW/LL). The legislative framework: setting principles and planning ahead * See glossary page 34 The Order of 7 February 2012 states that all waste produced in a basic nuclear installation (BNI*) is, as a precaution, considered to be radioactive and must be sent to appropriate management routes*. The producers of radioactive waste must sort it and carry out conditioning*, employing strict quality assurance procedures and the best available technologies, with the aim of reducing both the quantity and harmfulness of the waste. They are responsible for storage* of the waste and its transport to the repositories* for disposal. The producers are therefore responsible for the correct management of their waste, up until removal to a final disposal solution. WHAT THE LAW SAYS 4 • Les cahiers de l’ASN • May 2024 RADIOACTIVE WASTE UNDER SURVEILLANCE
AT THE EUROPEAN LEVEL The European Euratom Directive on the management of radioactive waste (2011) contributes to reinforcing safety within the European Union, by making the Member States more accountable for the management of their radioactive waste. AT THE INTERNATIONAL LEVEL The International Atomic Agency’s (IAEA*) Joint Convention on the Safety of radioactive waste management is a legally binding international instrument, which entered into force on 18 June 2001, and which addresses the global safety of radioactive waste management. The contracting countries (including France) undertake to apply strict safety provisions, and to periodically draw up a national report on these provisions. The National Radioactive Materials and Waste Management Plan (PNGMDR) The main objectives of the PNGMDR are: ∙ to draw up the inventory of the existing radioactive waste management methods and the chosen technical solutions; ∙ to identify the foreseeable need for storage or disposal facilities and to clarify the capacity required for these facilities, as well as the storage durations; ∙ to set the general objectives to be attained, the main deadlines and the schedules enabling these deadlines to be met; ∙ to set the objectives to be attained for radioactive waste for which a final management solution has not yet been determined; ∙ to organise research and studies into the management of radioactive waste, by setting deadlines for the implementation of new management solutions, the creation of facilities or the modification of existing facilities. The drafting of the 5th edition of the PNGMDR (2022-2026) was for the first time preceded by a public debate in 2019. On 21 February 2020, the Ministry in charge of energy and ASN published a joint decision further to this public debate, which set out the broad guidelines of the Plan. It in particular emphasised the continued creation of management routes for waste for which these were not yet available (LLW-LL and HLW-ILW/LL waste), as well as optimisation of the existing routes, in particular that for very low-level waste (VLL), which will be required to manage waste from the decommissioning of the nuclear installations. Radioactive waste • 5
* See glossary page 34 Radioactive waste: who acts, who oversees? The Ministry responsible for the environment draws up policy and implements the Government’s decisions concerning the civil nuclear sector. In operational terms, radioactive waste management is the responsibility of various actors. THE LONG-TERM MANAGER The French national radioactive waste management agency (Andra) is a public institution responsible for the long-term management of the radioactive waste produced in France. It reports to the Ministries responsible for research, industry and the environment. Its duties are: • to devise and implement lasting management solutions for all categories of radioactive waste, notably high-level waste (HLW), intermediate level long-lived waste (ILW-LL) and low level long-lived waste (LLW-LL), which is currently stored; • take charge of radioactive waste from the nuclear power sector, research, national defence, industry other than nuclear power generation and the medical sector; • operate radioactive waste repositories* while ensuring protection of human health and the environment. PARLIAMENT ANDRA ASN THE REGULATOR AND ITS TECHNICAL SUPPORT ORGANISATION ASN oversees the waste producers and Andra; it examines the BNI* authorisation procedures as related to waste management. It regularly assesses the waste management strategy of each of the major licensees. This approach must take into account all the safety, radiation protection*, waste volume and harmfulness minimisation issues. As part of its general role of technical support for the safety regulators, the Institute for Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety (IRSN) assesses the safety of all the operations associated with management of the waste from the BNIs. Its role notably consists in analysing all the risks which could arise from the short to the very long term, on current or future disposal facilities. 6 • Les cahiers de l’ASN • May 2024 RADIOACTIVE WASTE UNDER SURVEILLANCE
THE NUCLEAR LICENSEES The producers of waste are responsible for it from the technical and financial standpoints, and in the environmental impact assessment of their installation must indicate whether or not it is radioactive, along with its volume, type, harmfulness and the envisaged disposal solutions. PARLIAMENT The Parliamentary Office for the Evaluation of Scientific and Technological Choices (OPECST) organises hearings of the radioactive materials and waste stakeholders and publishes assessment reports and recommendations. The General Directorate for the treasury and that for energy and the climate are responsible for monitoring the financing of the long-term costs related to radioactive waste. The National review board (CNE2) conducts an annual assessment of the state of progress and the quality of research concerning the management of radioactive materials and waste. PARTIES IN THE DEBATE IRSN NUCLEAR LICENSEES THE PARTIES IN THE DEBATE The High Committee for Transparency and Information on Nuclear Safety (HCTISN) is an information, discussion and debating body dealing with the risks inherent in nuclear activities and the impact of these activities on human health, the environment and nuclear safety. The Local Information Committees (CLIs) are information and consultation structures set up for each BNI. Their general role is monitoring and consultation regarding nuclear safety*, radiation protection and the impact of nuclear activities on humans and the environment, and promoting information of the public about safety. The National Commission for Public Debate (CNDP) is the independent authority responsible for guaranteeing the right of any individual living in France to obtain information about and take part in projects or policies which have an impact on the environment. This “debating right” for the public also helps improve the decisions made by those in charge of projects or policies. It helps inform them of the values, expectations or concerns of the public. Radioactive waste • 7
The different types of radioactive waste Radioactive wastes are radioactive substances for which no subsequent use is planned or envisaged. They must thus be managed in a disposal route* compatible with their harmfulness. Time needed for the radioactivity to decay to a threshold with no further risk for human health and the environment. It depends on the radioactive half-life. 1. Given the very low activity level, the time criterion is not a factor in the classification of this waste category. Radioactivity is a natural phenomenon to which all humans are permanently exposed. Artificial radioactivity is produced by human activities (medicine, industry, research, regulated discharges from nuclear facilities, etc.). Radioactive wastes are also as diverse as the activities that produce them. Depending on their origin, their harmfulness varies, as does the time for which they are dangerous. In France, there are six categories of radioactive waste, based on two criteria: • the radioactive activity (the number of radioactive nucleus decays occurring each second and which therefore emit radiation); • the lifetime (the period of time during which this radiation is emitted). The six categories of radioactive waste VERY SHORT-LIVED Radioactive waste with a half-life* of less than 100 days. A large proportion of this comes from medical applications of radioactivity (diagnostic or therapeutic). Up to about 3 years VSL HIGH-LEVEL WASTE This is produced by the reprocessing of nuclear fuels. It gives off heat. It must be left to cool in pools for years before final disposal. In France, high level waste is calcined and then incorporated into a molten glass paste. It is then poured into a stainless-steel package. Up to several hundred thousand years HLW LLW/ ILW-SL LOW- AND INTERMEDIATE- LEVEL SHORT-LIVED WASTE This is primarily waste from the maintenance and operation of nuclear installations (clothing, tools, gloves, filters, etc.). This waste also comes from research laboratories, hospitals, universities, etc. It can be incinerated, melted, encapsulated in a matrix (cement for example), or compacted. Up to about 300 years VERY LOW-LEVEL This comes from the nuclear industry, in particular installation decommissioning operations. It is primary parts obtained by cutting up equipment, and rubble with very low levels of contamination. Non-determinant (1) VLL INTERMEDIATE-LEVEL LONG-LIVED WASTE This primarily consists of hulls and end-pieces from the reprocessing* of nuclear fuels, and waste from the operation and maintenance of nuclear power plants. Up to several hundred thousand years ILW-LL LOW-LEVEL LONG-LIVED WASTE This primarily concerns: • waste contaminated by radium for example used in the past by the watchmaking industry; • graphite waste from the decommissioning of first-generation nuclear reactors; • waste from the processing of minerals such as rare earths used in electronics. Up to several hundred thousand years LLW-LL * See glossary page 34 8 • Les cahiers de l’ASN • May 2024 WHAT WASTE ARE WE TALKING ABOUT?
2. These are the categories in use in France. They may be different in other countries. 3. There is no such thing as high level, very short-lived waste. CATEGORY Very short-lived waste containing radionuclides* with a half-life < 100 days Short-lived waste in which the radioactivity comes mainly from radionuclides with a half-life ≤ 31 years Long-lived waste mainly containing radionuclides with a half-life > 31 years Very low-level (VLL) Management by radioactive decay on the production site then disposal through routes dedicated to conventional waste Recycling or dedicated surface disposal* (repository at the Industrial centre for collection, storage and disposal in the Aube département – Cires) Low-level (LL) Surface disposal (Aube waste disposal repository – CSA) Near-surface disposal (being studied pursuant to the Act of 28 June 2006) Intermediatelevel (IL) High-level (HL) Not applicable(3) Deep geological disposal (Cigéo, planned pursuant to the 28 June 2006 Act) VSL VLL LL/ ILW-SL LLW-LL ILW-LL HLW The categories (2) of radioactive waste and their management routes GIVING THE MATTER SOME THOUGHT A radioactive substance contains natural or artificial radionuclides, the activity or concentration of which justifies monitoring to prevent risks. Substance is a general term which covers both radioactive materials and radioactive waste. A radioactive material is a radioactive substance for which subsequent use is planned or envisaged, if necessary, after processing. This is the case of the uranium and plutonium obtained from spent nuclear fuel* reprocessing, or the technetium used in medicine. France made the decision to reprocess the spent fuel from its nuclear power plants, with up to 96% of the materials being reusable as a raw material in the fabrication of various fuels, while the rest (about 4%) is waste. Radioactive waste • 9
* See glossary page 34 Radioactive waste in France: key figures The radioactive waste present in France is precisely inventoried by Andra. As at the end of 2021, it amounted to about 1,760,000 m3. 10% of this volume accounts for 99% of the radioactivity. Volumes of waste present on the sites of those producing/holding it or disposed of in the Andra centres as at the end of 2021 All of the radioactive waste produced in France is monitored and inventoried. Volume, type, location: every year, the waste producers declare their respective production and their forecasts. All these data are collected and made available to everyone. In the Andra centres 1,320,000 m3 On the sites of those producing/ holding the waste 441,000 m3 LOCATION OF WASTE AS AT END 2021 EXISTING DISPOSAL* CAPACITY FOR LLW/ILW-SL AND VLL WASTE AS AT END 2021 Capacity 650,000 m3 VLL Capacity 1,530,000 m3 LLW- ILW/SL Waste disposed of 890,000 m3 Waste disposed of 430,000 m3 75% 25% 2,170 m3 VSL 633,000 m3 VLL 981,000 m3 LLW/ ILW-SL 103,000 m3 LLW-LL 39,500 m3 ILW-LL 4,320 m3 HLW 10 • Les cahiers de l’ASN • May 2024 WHAT WASTE ARE WE TALKING ABOUT?
Breakdown of waste volume by economic sector (in conditioned equivalent) already disposed of or to be entrusted to Andra, as at end 2021 35% of the total volume of radioactive waste is very low‑level (VLL) It comes primarily from the dismantling of nuclear installations and consists of rubble, earth, scrap with very little contamination. It is disposed of in surface repositories. 55% of the total volume of radioactive waste is short-lived It loses half of its radioactivity in periods of 30 years or less. After 300 years, its residual radioactivity is close to natural radioactivity levels. It contains about 0.1% of the total radioactivity. It comes primarily from the operation and maintenance of the nuclear power plants. It is disposed of in surface repositories. 8% of the total volume of radioactive waste is long-lived It can remain radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years. 2.5% of it contains 99.8% of the total radioactivity. It comes primarily from the reprocessing* of spent nuclear fuel*. It is conditioned (vitrified) and stored at La Hague, and is intended for disposal at depth. 6% is low-level waste. It comes from various activities, most of which date from far in the past. It is stored, pending the definition of a management solution. A dedicated repository is currently being studied. 5.9% 55.7% 35.9% 2.3% 0.2% Radioactive waste volume Level of radioactivity HLW VLLW 0.0004% LL/ ILW-SL 0.12% LLW-LL 0.01% ILW-LL 2.67% 97.2% It should be noted that more than 90% of the volume of the radioactive waste is VLLW and LLW/ILW-SL waste, in other words, the least dangerous. MEDICAL 0.5% INDUSTRY UNRELATED TO NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION 3.3% DEFENCE 8.7% RESEARCH 26.6% NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION 60.9% Breakdown of volumes and levels of radioactivity as at end 2021 Source: National inventory of radioactive waste, Andra, 2023. Radioactive waste • 11
After being used for its energy-producing, medical or industrial properties, and after possibly being reused further to reprocessing, the radioactive material becomes a waste which must be managed in a manner appropriate to the danger it represents. Preventing and reducing the production and harmfulness of the waste This fundamental principle is enshrined in the regulations. The waste producers must present and justify their actions in this respect. The waste is collected, characterised and sorted The waste can then be conditioned as an interim (non-systematic) or final solution, having first been reprocessed if necessary. production of waste sorting Several possible techniques • Volume reduction (melting, incineration, compacting, etc.) • Decontamination • Physical-chemical treatment (dissolution, evaporation, etc.) The steps in radioactive waste management Volume reduction Decontamination Chemical treatment * See glossary page 34 processing* of the waste 12 • Les cahiers de l’ASN • May 2024 WHAT WASTE ARE WE TALKING ABOUT?
conditioning* storage* and disposal* Conditioning is all the operations consisting in introducing waste into a container, possibly by incorporating it into an encapsulating or blocking matrix, to form a waste package. The protection of human health and the environment (article L. 593-1 of the Environment Code) is monitored by ASN at each step in the management process. There are significant safety issues in the transport operations involved in waste management (in particular for spent fuel* shipments). The packages must be approved by ASN, after a technical examination by IRSN. This handbook does not aim to cover all the issues and regulations in force in the transport of radioactive waste. Interim conditioning Final conditioning Disposal Storage Radioactive waste • 13
CADARACHE MARCOULE MALVÉSI VALDUC MORVILLIERS TRICASTIN BUGEY SACLAY SAINT-LAURENT-DES-EAUX LA HAGUE SOULAINES-DHUYS * See glossary page 34 Where is the radioactive waste in France? Radioactive waste is processed and then conditioned. Then, depending on its type, it is stored pending a management solution, or finally disposed of in specialised repositories. SOULAINES-DHUYS BNI 149 Conditioning and disposal Aube repository (CSA) MORVILLIERS ICPE (4) Conditioning, storage and disposal Industrial centre for grouping, storage and disposal (Cires) LA HAGUE BNI 66 Disposal Manche repository (CSM) BNI 116, 117, 118 Processing, conditioning and storage Spent fuel elements reprocessing plants (UP3-A and UP2-800) and liquid effluent and solid waste treatment station (STE3) SACLAY BNI 72 Conditioning and storage Solid radioactive waste management zone (ZGDS) BNI 35 Treatment and conditioning Liquid Effluent Management Zone (ZGEL) SAINT-LAURENT-DES-EAUX BNI 74 Storage Storage of irradiated graphite sleeves MALVÉSI BNI 175 Storage Contained storage of conversion residues (Écrin) Key Processing Conditioning Storage Disposal 14 • Les cahiers de l’ASN • May 2024 WHAT WASTE ARE WE TALKING ABOUT?
VALDUC Storage Military tritiated waste storage building BUGEY BNI 173 Conditioning and storage Activated waste conditioning and storage facility (Iceda) TRICASTIN BNI 138 Processing Clean-out and uranium recovery facility (IARU – formerly Socatri) MARCOULE BNI 177 Storage Irradiating or alpha waste from decommissioning (Diadem) DBNI (5) Processing and conditioning CDS DBNI (5) Processing and conditioning STEMA BNI 160 Processing and conditioning Low-level waste processing and packaging centre (Centraco) CADARACHE BNI 171 Processing Advanced effluent management and treatment facility (Agate) BNI 164 Storage Radioactive waste conditioning and storage facility (Cedra) BNI 37-A Treatment and conditioning Solid Waste Treatment Station (STD) ICPE (4) Conditioning and storage Rotonde CONDITIONING Conditioning is the operation which consists in placing the waste in a container suited to its level of radioactivity and lifetime and if necessary, immobilising it in a blocking or encapsulating material. The most widely used of these processes are cementation, encapsulation with bitumen or polymer resins, and vitrification. PROCESSING Radioactive waste must be processed prior to safe final disposal. This processing comprises the collection and sorting of the waste, reduction of its volume and modification of its chemical composition and physical properties, for example by concentrating liquid waste, and finally conditioning to immobilise it in a packaging before storage and final disposal. STORAGE The storage of radioactive materials or waste consists in placing these substances for a temporary period in a surface or near-surface storage facility specially fitted out for the purpose, with the aim of subsequently retrieving them. Waste is stored on the sites in specific facilities before being sent to disposal routes*. DISPOSAL Disposal in a deep geological formation enables the high level, long-lived (HLW-LL) waste to be definitively placed in a site guaranteeing its containment*, while keeping the option of recovering it should it prove necessary or opportune (this is the concept of “reversibility*”). The other waste categories, which are less dangerous, can be disposed of in surface repositories (CSA) or near-surface repositories (disposal facility planned for LLW-LL waste). 4. Installation Classified for Protection of the Environment. 5. Defence Basic Nuclear Installation. Radioactive waste • 15
* See glossary page 34 INSPECTION AT CEDRA IN CEA’S CADARACHE CENTRE Package handling tool with on board camera. Credits: ASN/W. Guidarini PRODUCTION OF GLASS FOR THE HIGH-LEVEL WASTE VITRIFICATION PROCESS Credits: CEA/Y. Audic and PF. Grosjean Processing*, conditioning*, transport, storage*, disposal*, etc., strict surveillance is carried out on the waste at each step. ASN’s oversight aims on the one hand to verify correct application of the regulations regarding waste management on the production sites (for example with respect to zoning, conditioning or checks carried out by the licensee); and on the other to verify the safety of the specific facilities for radioactive waste management (waste processing, conditioning, storage and disposal facilities). This oversight is exercised in a manner proportionate to the nuclear safety issues associated with each waste management step and each facility. Images of waste surveillance 16 • Les cahiers de l’ASN • May 2024 WHAT WASTE ARE WE TALKING ABOUT?
INSPECTION AT CEDRA IN CEA’S CADARACHE CENTRE Intermediate level package storage pit. Credits: ASN/W. Guidarini BURE UNDERGROUND LABORATORY Excavation of a drift. Credits: ASN TRANSPORT INSPECTION IN VALOGNES Loading a waste package onto a truck. Credits: ASN/D. Sohier LA HAGUE T7 vitrification unit. Credits: Orano/C. Crespeau Radioactive waste • 17
* See glossary page 34 Close-up on some of the facilities devoted to processing, conditioning or storage of radioactive waste Each site specialises in specific activities, ranging from processing* to disposal*, including conditioning* and storage*. Centraco Activities: processing and conditioning Types of waste: very low level (VLL), low- or intermediate- level short-lived (LLW/ILW-SL) Licensee: Cyclife France, subsidiary of EDF Location: Codolet (Gard département) Commissioned: 1996 This facility is unique in France. The low-level waste processing and conditioning centre (Centraco – BNI* 160) houses: ■ a fusion unit, where metal waste is melted. Authorisation to incinerate 3,500 tonnes of waste per year; ■ an incineration unit, where solid and liquid fuel waste is processed (LLW/ILW-SL waste). Authorisation to incinerate 3,000 tonnes of solid waste and 3,000 tonnes of liquid waste per year; ■ a storage area. Apart from waste processing, the purpose of the industrial site is also to: ■ characterise the waste; ■ reduce its volume to optimise storage capacity (this is referred to as “volume reduction” of the waste); ■ condition the residues, after processing (melting or incineration), in the form of packages intended for disposal. The packages are then entrusted to Andra for final disposal. 18 • Les cahiers de l’ASN • May 2024 WHAT WASTE ARE WE TALKING ABOUT?
Activities: conditioning and storage Types of waste: low- or intermediate-level short‑lived (LLW/ILW-SL), low-level long-lived (LLW-LL), intermediate- level long-lived (ILW-LL) Licensee: EDF Location: Saint-Vulbas (Ain département) Commissioned: 2020 The activated waste conditioning and storage facility (Iceda – BNI 173) was commissioned in 2020 and is operated by EDF. It was designed to accept, condition and store several categories of radioactive waste, including: ■ LLW-LL graphite waste from the decommissioning of the Bugey 1 Gas-Cooled Reactor (GCR) and intended for near surface final disposal; ■ ILW-LL activated metal waste from the operation of the EDF nuclear power plants in service and the decommissioning of the 1st generation NPPs and Creys-Malville; ■ certain ILW-SL waste, referred to as “deferred transfer”. This waste, which is intended for surface disposal, requires radioactive decay of several years to several decades, before final disposal in the Aube repository (CSA). The site received a first package of waste from the decommissioning of the Chooz A NPP (Ardennes département), in September 2020. Iceda Activities: conditioning, storage and disposal Type of waste: very low-level (VLL) Licensee: Andra Location: Morvilliers (Aube département) Commissioned: 2003 Industrial centre for collection, storage and disposal (Cires, Installation Classified for Protection of the Environment (ICPE), is devoted to: ■ disposal of VLL waste, since it was commissioned in 2003; ■ grouping of radioactive waste, from activities other than nuclear power generation, and the storage of some of the waste for which there is no final management solution, since 2012; ■ sorting and processing of radioactive waste, from activities other than nuclear power generation, since 2016. This centre covers a total area of 46 hectares, 18 of which are set aside for the disposal of VLL waste. It is authorised to accept 650,000 m3 of waste. The site runs the risk of seeing saturation of its capacity by about 2030. One of the medium‑term solutions proposed is to increase the maximum authorised storage capacity of Cires to more than 900,000 m3, without modifying the current footprint of the disposal zone while maintaining its level of safety. This expansion project is called “Acaci”. Cires Radioactive waste • 19
* See glossary page 34 Activities: conditioning and disposal Types of waste: low- and intermediate-level short‑lived (LLW/ILW-SL) Licensee: Andra Location: Soulaines-Dhuys (Aube département) Commissioned: 1992 Activities: reprocessing, conditioning and storage Types of waste: all types Licensee: Orano Location: La Hague (Manche département) Commissioned: 1986 à 2002 Aube repository (CSA) La Hague The Aube repository (CSA) covers 95 hectares, 30 of which are set aside for disposal*. The centre has an authorised disposal capacity of one million cubic metres of LLW/ILW-SL waste. The LLW/ILW-SL waste emplaced in the CSA is conditioned in concrete or metal packages. These packages are placed in reinforced concrete structures 25 metres on a side and 8 metres high, which have been built in stages. Once filled, these structures are closed by a concrete slab, which is made leaktight by an impermeable cover. At the end of operation, a cover consisting notably of clay will be placed over the structures to ensure the long-term containment* of the waste. Once the maximum capacity has been reached, the CSA will continue to be monitored for at least 300 years. At the end of 2022, the volume of waste disposed of in the CSA was about 371,500 m3, or 37% of the authorised maximum capacity. The site houses several units (UP3-A and UP2-800) performing a variety of operations: storage* of spent fuel* assemblies; shearing and dissolution of these assemblies; chemical separation of fission products*, of uranium and plutonium making up the fuels; purification of the uranium and plutonium; treatment of effluents; conditioning* of the waste. Orano is promoting two projects to increase the spent fuel storage capacity at La Hague: one concerning the densification of the existing pools, while the other longer-term project aims to create a dry storage facility. The fission products resulting from reprocessing of spent fuels are concentrated, vitrified and conditioned in Standard Vitrified Waste Packages (CSD-V). The pieces of fuel assembly metal cladding are conditioned in Standard Compacted Waste Packages (CSD-C). This solid waste is stored on the La Hague site pending a final disposal solution (see Cigéo project p. 22 and 23). The site is also concerned by legacy radioactive Waste Retrieval and Conditioning (WRC*) operations. In 2022, technical difficulties delayed the retrieval of waste from silos 115 and 130 and the processing* of the sludges produced during effluent treatment. 20 • Les cahiers de l’ASN • May 2024 WHAT WASTE ARE WE TALKING ABOUT?
Activities: storage Type of waste: intermediate-level long-lived (ILW-LL) Licensee: Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) Location: Saint-Paul-lez-Durance (Bouches-du-Rhône département) Commissioned: 2006 Since 2006, the purpose of the “radioactive waste conditioning and storage” facility (Cedra – BNI* 164) has been the storage of ILW-LL waste, pending the opening of appropriate disposal routes*. Cedra stores radioactive waste from CEA’s research laboratories. The site is running a serious risk of saturation: CEA anticipates saturation of the facility by about 2030. Studies on a project to increase Cedra’s storage capacity began in 2020. Cedra Activities: storage Type of waste: low-level long-lived (LLW-LL) Licensee: Orano Chimie-Enrichissement Location: Narbonne (Aude département) Commissioned: 2018 The “Contained storage of conversion residues” facility (Écrin – BNI 175) is located on a base of mining waste rock and treatment residues from a former sulphur mine. It consists of two storage ponds for the used sludges (ponds B1 and B2) from the Orano Chimie-Enrichissement plant (formerly Orano Cycle) at Malvési. The site is authorised to store radioactive waste for a period of 30 years, with a waste volume limited to 400,000 m3, and contains radioactive waste produced during the refining and conversion of uranium concentrates in the Orano Chimie‑Enrichissement plant at Malvési, already contained in ponds B1 and B2, along with the solid residues from the drainage of ponds B5 and B6. Écrin Radioactive waste • 21
The case of HLW-ILW/LL radioactive waste The geological disposal industrial centre (Cigéo) will consist of surface facilities and an underground facility. The surface facilities will primarily be used to accept and check the waste packages. The underground facility, located at a depth of about 500 metres, and comprising nearly 300 km of tunnels, will represent a surface area of about 15 km² where the waste packages will be emplaced by robotic systems in horizontal tunnels called “vaults” excavated in a layer of argilite. * See glossary page 34 The Cigéo project is intended for the deep geological disposal* of high level and intermediate level long-lived waste (HLW/ILW-LL) in order to protect human health and the environment from the very long-term radiological and chemical hazards linked to these wastes. The safety of Cigéo is based notably on the physical properties of this geological layer, which offers sufficient mechanical strength and prevents the migration of radionuclides* to the surface. The choice of deep geological disposal Owing to its depth, its design and its location in impermeable clay rock and a stable geological environment, this type of repository shelters the waste from human activity and natural events on the surface (such as erosion), while isolating the HLW and ILW‑LL waste from human activity over a very long time-scale. This is the preferred solution internationally and was chosen by France via the Bataille Act (1991). These disposal zones will be developed on a modular basis over a period of a century, to allow the gradual construction of the vaults in which the waste packages will be emplaced (see diagram). These packages represent a volume of 85,000 m³. Once all the waste packages are emplaced, Underground laboratory Package reception, inspection and preparation zone Shafts zone Works support zone HLW repository zone Double ramps ILW-LL repository zone THE BURE UNDERGROUND LABORATORY (MEUSE DÉPARTEMENT), situated at a depth of 490 metres, is a unique research tool for the Cigéo project. Its underground drifts allow in-situ study of a layer of clay 160 million years old, along with various concepts and techniques that could be used to construct the Cigéo facility. – 420 m – 550 m – 700 m Credits: Andra/S. Lavoué 22 • Les cahiers de l’ASN • May 2024 THE CHALLENGES FOR TOMORROW
the underground facility will be closed to guarantee the containment* of the waste over a very long time period, without requiring any human intervention and once the surface facilities have been dismantled. A surveillance phase of several hundred years will then begin. Operation of the site will last for about a century and the risks linked to a nuclear installation cannot be ignored: criticality*, HIGH-LEVEL WASTE (HLW) PACKAGES These will be emplaced in vaults about a hundred metres long and about 70 cm in diameter, with a metal liner. INTERMEDIATE-LEVEL LONG‑LIVED WASTE (ILW-LL) These will be emplaced in horizontal disposal vaults a few hundred metres long and about ten metres in diameter. fire, containment, ventilation, falling packages, etc. In the design of the facility, the specific aspects are studied: depth, size, operating lifetime, etc. The reversibility* requirement The disposal of waste in Cigéo will have to be reversible for a period of at least 100 years, in other words, it will be possible to extract the packages during this period in the event of a problem. Inventories The inventory to be adopted by Andra for the studies and research conducted with a view to designing the Cigéo disposal facility includes a reference inventory and a reserve inventory. • The reference inventory takes account of all high level and intermediate level long-lived (HLW and ILW-LL) waste already produced and to be produced by the existing nuclear facilities (nuclear power plants, research centres, etc.), as well as that to be produced by the authorised nuclear facilities (Flamanville EPR, ITER, Jules Horowitz experimental reactor), assuming an average reactor operating life of 50 years. • The reserve inventory take into account the uncertainties associated more specifically with putting in place new waste management routes* or with changes in energy policy. Thus, for the waste from the “new reactors” to be built (in particular six EPR 2), Andra shall be required to examine the waste to be included in the reserve inventory and ensure that the Cigéo adaptability studies enable it to be accepted. INITIAL DESIGN PRELIMINARY WORKS Declaration of Public Utility Decree (DUP) Filing of the creation authorisation application Creation Authorisation Decree (DAC) Act authorising final closure of the repository Commissioning authorisation Act adapting the conditions for continued operation of the repository DAC REVIEW INITIAL CONSTRUCTION PILOT INDUSTRIAL PHASE CLOSURE AND SURVEILLANCE THE MAIN STEPS ENVISAGED IN THE CIGÉO PROJECT 2022 2001-2021 2023 2028 2150 2035-2040 2040-2050 Time-frame Time-frame Time-frame Time-frame OPERATION AND GRADUAL CONSTRUCTION CIGEO PROJECT DISPOSAL VAULTS Radioactive waste • 23
* See glossary page 34 A new project will be able to manage waste for which there is as yet no disposal solution*. In addition, thanks to technical progress, the radioactive wastes could be made less dangerous or less numerous. Overview of the potential solutions for the future. POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS for the future THE LLW-LL WASTE REPOSITORY PROJECT Since 2008, Andra has been studying a project for a LLW-LL waste repository. The project concerns a waste repository* in a clay layer at a depth of about thirty metres, at Vendeuvre-Soulaines, in the Aube département. It would be able to isolate the waste from human activity and erosion, limit the circulation of water in the repository and delay the transfer of radionuclides* to the biosphere. At the beginning of 2024, Andra will produce a file presenting the technical and safety options chosen for this facility. NUCLEAR FUSION In the fission process, heavy atoms are broken into several pieces by bombarding them with neutrons. In the fusion process, the opposite happens: matter is compressed with such force that two light atoms merge into a single heavier atom. A fusion reactor would not therefore produce the same radioactive waste as the current NPPs (fission products*, actinides*, etc.) but lower level tritiated waste with a shorter lifetime. However, the production of electricity using nuclear fusion still has to overcome significant technological hurdles. FAST-NEUTRON REACTORS (FNRS) This type of reactor produces fission reactions from a wide variety of fuels, spent fuels* in particular. For example, they can use the plutonium produced by the existing fleet of Pressurised Water Reactors (PWRs). They are also capable of running on natural uranium, with an energy efficiency higher than the current fleet, thereby using all of the natural uranium. Finally, in certain conditions, some FNRs are able to transform the minor actinides* (americium, neptunium and curium) contained in high level radioactive waste into shorter lived elements. This transformation, called “transmutation*”, would reduce the emission of heat and the inherent radiotoxicity of the ultimate waste. SEPARATION/TRANSMUTATION Separation/transmutation processes aim to isolate and then transform the long-lived radionuclides in radioactive waste into shorter-lived radionuclides or even stable elements. This would have an impact on the sizing and design of the repository, by reducing the thermal power, the harmfulness of the waste emplaced and the volume of the repository. ASN considers that if transmutation studies were to be continued, they should cover the radioactive substances currently categorised as materials, or the waste produced by a future fleet of reactors. RECYCLING OF VERY LOW-LEVEL WASTE (VLLW) Recycling of some of the VLL metal materials would be one way of optimising waste disposal capacity by reducing the quantities of waste to be disposed of, and thereby the corresponding land artificialisation. This would also lead to savings in raw materials, which would be replaced by the recycled waste. In concrete terms, this involves melting the waste, eliminating the contaminated fraction and using it to manufacture objects or structures. 24 • Les cahiers de l’ASN • May 2024
Radioactive waste management around the world Although some countries have to manage radioactive waste from the nuclear industry, virtually all countries in the world have to manage radioactive waste from various medical and industrial applications. For a large number of countries, the safe management of radioactive waste entails the construction of disposal sites in which the waste is in principle emplaced definitively. This type of repository exists around the world for the lowest level waste. These are generally surface, or near-surface sites. For high level waste, the repository must be built at depths of several hundred metres, in order to guarantee the containment* of this waste for several thousand years. Several types of rocks are preferred to accommodate this type of waste (clay, granite, salt, etc.). The construction of deep geological repositories represents a major investment. If it is to be seen through to completion, this type of project requires long‑term involvement by Governments and Parliaments. For the time being, no repository of this type is in operation in the world, but projects in several countries – including Finland – are well advanced. However, as in the United States, which have abandoned their geological disposal project, numerous countries – including some industrialised nations – have postponed the decision and are thus adopting a de facto long‑term storage policy. Radioactive waste • 25 THE CHALLENGES FOR TOMORROW
* See glossary page 34 Sweden In 2022, Sweden authorised the construction of a geological repository (granite rock) in Östhammar for spent fuel, with operations planned to start between 2030 and 2035. Sweden also has a centralised disposal facility on the Forsmark site, devoted to LLW/ILW-SL waste. For LLW/ILW-LL waste, Sweden is envisaging a specific geological repository. Canada A spent fuel* repository* project has been studied since 2007. Two sites in Ontario were pre-selected in 2019. The final choice should be made in 2024. The construction permit application is expected in 2029 with construction planned to begin in 2033 with commissioning as of 2043. For LLW/ILW-LL waste, a geological repository at a depth of 600 m is envisaged close to the Bruce NPP. A sub-surface repository is also being studied for low level waste from the research activities conducted at the Chalk River national laboratory. These two projects have not however been approved by the local populations. The consultation processes are ongoing. United States The spent fuel geological repository project on the Yucca Mountain site (Nevada), which has been studied since the 1980s, was abandoned in 2011 for political reasons, notably as a result of strong local opposition. The search for a new site has begun, but none has so far been selected. In-situ dry storage* of the spent fuel is so far the preferred management method. The United States also has a geological repository, the WIPP, located in New Mexico, for transuranic waste from defence programmes (disposal in a layer of salt at a depth of about 650 metres). Civil LLW/ ILW waste is disposed of in near surface facilities. Ghana Ghana has an advanced project for disposal of used sources in pits (depth of 150 metres) with the technical support of the American and Canadian safety regulators. Two pits were constructed for testing purposes. The safety file was reviewed by the IAEA* in 2019 and the creation authorisation application is currently being examined by the authorities. Spain Spain envisages creating a geological repository site for HLW waste. Candidate sites should be selected in 2032. The country has surface and near surface disposal facilities for VLL and LLW/ILW waste on the El Cabril site. The concepts used in these facilities are similar to those employed in France (Cires and CSA). 26 • Les cahiers de l’ASN • May 2024 THE CHALLENGES FOR TOMORROW
Germany Germany intends to create a deep geological repository for HLW waste. Potential sites are currently being identified. The siting choice is envisaged for 2031, with commissioning as of 2050. For LLW/ILW, disposal is planned on the Konrad site (former iron mine) at a depth of 800 metres. Construction started in 2023 with commissioning scheduled for 2030. Finland Finland is the first country to have authorised the construction of a deep geological repository (in granite rock) for HLW waste and spent fuel. The repository is built as an extension to a research laboratory situated at a depth of 400 metres, in Olkiluoto. Commissioning is scheduled for 2025. Since the 1990s, Finland has also had near-surface disposal facilities (between 60 and 110 metres) for LLW/ILW waste on its two nuclear sites (Olkiluoto and Loviisa). Russia An underground laboratory for evaluating the feasibility of a deep geological repository for HLW and ILW-LL waste is under construction in the granite formation of Nijnekanski, in the Krasnoyarsk region of Siberia. This site should also house the future HLW and ILW-LL waste repository, the construction of which could be decided in about 2025. The LLW/ILW waste is also being managed in several disposal facilities. Japan Japan is envisaging a geological repository for HLW waste at a depth of at least 300 metres. Two sites have been identified in principle close to the Tomari NPP on the island of Hokkaido, with commissioning planned as of 2035. Japan also has a disposal facility for LLW waste on the Rokkasho Mura site, in operation since 1995. A subsurface repository is being envisaged for the other LLW waste. Switzerland Switzerland intends to dispose of radioactive waste and spent fuel in a deep geological layer of clay (between 500 and 1,000 metres depth). The Nördlich Lägern site was chosen in 2022. After the statutory procedure, this decision should be ratified by a popular referendum currently scheduled for about 2031. Commissioning is envisaged as of 2050 for the ILW-LL waste and 2060 for the HLW. Radioactive waste • 27
The French population and radioactive waste How does the French population perceive radioactive waste (6)? The production of radioactive waste remains a major argument against nuclear energy, even more so than the risk of accident. However, since 2019, the share of the French population associating radioactive waste with a high level of risk has been falling (48% in 2022 as compared with 57% on average between 1997 and 2018). When it comes to waste management, 33% of the French population in 2022 considered that it is now “possible to dispose of radioactive waste safely”, or 3 points more than the previous year. Moreover, most of the French population (68%) want to see rapid decision-making and action on this subject, with only 6% of them stating that the most reasonable position is to “leave the choice up to future generations”. This opinion has indeed been unchanged since 2005. Public participation To accompany this strong concern on the part of society, new methods of consultation have been proposed to the public in recent years. One could mention the public debate and then the ongoing Radioactive waste is one of the major concerns of the French population, which wishes to see firm action by the public authorities in this field. Involvement of the public is thus crucial so that they can be informed, take part in the drafting of projects and enhance the legitimacy of the decisions taken by the stakeholders. consultation on the Cigéo deep geological repository* project, the public debate concerning the 5th edition of the PNGMDR*, and the public consultation regarding the increased capacity of the industrial centre for the disposal of very low-level radioactive waste (Acaci). For its part, ASN consults the public on each draft resolution concerning radioactive waste, via its website asn.fr. During its review of the Cigéo creation authorisation application, ASN for the first time conducted a consultation exercise with the stakeholders (producers, NGO, Anccli, Bure CLI and CLIS) concerning the draft of the referral sent to IRSN. ASN’s aim is thus to dialogue with the stakeholders, in order to understand and identify their primary expectations and concerns regarding nuclear safety* and radiation protection*, so that they can be considered in the technical review of the Cigéo creation authorisation application. The information collected will contribute to the selection, ranking and weighting of the technical subjects to be examined during the course of the review. This consultation takes place within a regulated review period and will therefore be held in accordance with a defined schedule. * See glossary page 34 6. Results taken from the IRSN 2023 barometer on the perception of risks and safety. 28 • Les cahiers de l’ASN • May 2024 INFORMING THE PUBLIC
The National Commission for Public Debate (CNDP) decided to hold a public debate from 17 April to 25 September 2019, prior to the drafting of the 5th edition of the PNGMDR. ASN and the General Directorate for Energy and the Climate (DGEC) produced a project manager’s report to present the main issues relating to the drafting of the next Plan, notably the volumes of VLL waste expected from decommissioning and the creation of a deep geological repository. Ahead of the debate, the Special Commission for Public Debate (CPDP) produced a “controversy clarification” file, aiming to explain the arguments put forward by experts or institutional organisations regarding questions relating to the Plan, in a manner accessible to a non-specialist public. ASN and the DGEC took part in the debate in order to present the issues and answer questions from the public. Although the institutional representatives (nuclear licensees, associations, CLIs, experts) were often present in large numbers, participation by the general public remained limited. The participative platform received 86 questions, 442 opinions, 62 individual stakeholder presentations and 22 contributions. The questions primarily concerned the Cigéo project, the management of VLL waste, the separation/transmutation* of radionuclides*, the environmental and health consequences of waste management. Other subjects were also raised during the public debate: the management of particular waste categories, such as those resulting from the conversion of uranium, legacy waste, mining waste, transportation and health. The debate was able to explain certain technical controversies, clarify the expectations of the public and nuclear stakeholders and inform the prime contractors with a view to the drafting of the next PNGMDR. n 6 general subjects meetings in large cities. n 14 thematic meetings in the regions concerned. n 2 discussion sessions debating an ethical approach to the management of radioactive materials and waste. n A round-table on the question of trust and mistrust felt by the public with respect to the decisions taken or envisaged. n Information and debate stands in several towns around France. n An on-line participative platform enabling people to express an opinion, submit comments on those already expressed, submit questions to the prime contractor and, for artificial persons, submit an individual stakeholder’s presentation and contributions document. In parallel with these participation methods open to all, the CPDP set up some innovative systems. n A “mirror group” comprising 14 randomly selected citizens, which produced a joint contribution on the topic “What did we inherit and what will we leave to our children?” n A “tomorrow’s specialists workshop” brought together students from different backgrounds to explore how radioactive waste management can be informed by different disciplines. The public debate on the 5th edition of the PNGMDR Radioactive waste • 29
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